L earning Objective 29

The historic periods can be divided into three: 1- Effects of Early Polynesians, 2- Early Post-Contact and 3- Changes Since 1850 (Recent).

I. EFFECTS OF POLYNESIANS.

A. Population

1. The first wave was probably from Marquesas (2,400 miles to the SE) in 400 to 600 AD.

2. The estimated size of population, 200,000 to 1 million, peaked about 1650, about 100 years before European contact.

3. Population was down by one-half 25 years after contact and by 1/20th after 100 years, largely due to introduced diseases.

B. Agriculture

1. Agriculture probably had the greatest impact on native plants.

2. Two forms of permanent agriculture were wetland taro and dryland sweet potato.

3. Hawaiian irrigation systems were the largest and most sophisticated in Polynesia.

4. The Kona field system, one of the best, may have once supported one-half the population on 1% of the land. It had four zones, each with a different crop and microclimate:

a. kula: dry coastal, with sweet potato and wauke, pili grass

b. kalu'ulu: ulu or breadfruit plantations.

c. 'apa'a: most intensively cultivated with dryland taro, ti , ko and sweet potato uala;

d. 'ama'u: partially forested with bananas, ferns, trees for canoes and birds for feathers.

C. Impact on Vegetation: Replacement, deforestation and erosion were natural consequences of Hawaiian agriculture.

1. Deforestation along with erosion were natural consequence of Hawaiian agriculture. Increases in solar radiation (hotter temperatures and less water), faster water run-off, lowered water table, and drought

2. The extent of agriculture had specific effects on the land.

a. An early visitor reports walking five miles through O'ahu's Nu'uanu Valley taro fields before reaching forests.

b. On Kaho'olawe and Lana'i, early reporters saw treeless grasslands where there should have been dry forest and shrubland.

c. In Kohala on the Big Island (site of major agricultural fields), pollen studies show a decrease in trees and an increase in herbs over the last 1,600 years, while near the Saddle road (not close to major agricultural areas) little change in native vegetation has ocurred.

3. Development of the imu (Hawaiian underground oven) may have been in response to declining firewood resources.

D. Fire also affected native vegetation.

1. Fire was the primary way for Hawaiians to clear land, as is found in other places and times.

2. Hawaiians converted vast tracts of land, like the Kona system, and cultivated it 1,000 years ago, long before Europeans came.

3. Fire was also an important tool to rejuvenate fields and for weed control. Shifting agriculture was probably practiced.

4. Most native Hawaiian plants are not adapted to survive fires.

E. Polynesians introduced plants and animals to the Islands.

1. Polynesians brought about 24 plant species, three of which became naturalized: kukui, mountain apple and ti. Kukui can be dominant in lowland forests and may have replaced natives.

2. Introduced animals included pigs (usually kept penned), dogs, and chickens for food sources. Inadvertently, Polynesians brought the Polynesian rat which has done the greatest harm, eating native seeds that have no protection, geckoes, skinks, and land snails.

A. This period starts with the arrival of Captain Cook, the first contact with Americans and Europeans.

B. Ships subsequently depended on the Islands for provisions: pigs, sweet potato, taro, bananas, caulking, and rope from olona, an endemic plant, Touchardia latifolia.

C. Whaling ships needed great amounts of firewood to render (melt) whale blubber into oil for transport, which had an impact on forests. Ships came into three major ports: Honolulu, Hilo and Lahaina. In 1820,

100 ships arrived. By 1840, 400 ships arrived, and this level of activity continued for 30 years.

D. The sandalwood trade then followed, for a brief (1815-26) but disastrous time. In one year, 4 million pounds of wood were taken and it took 6,000 trees to fill one ship. Kings of Hawai'i received as much as $400,000 a year, but much was squandered on Western goods. The maka'ainana , or common people, suffered the greatest loss, losing time for tending crops and suffering harsh working conditions in the trade. Sandalwood, which was once dominant in Ko'olau on O'ahu, was gone.

F. A similar trend was harvesting pulu, the soft hairs from tree fern, hapu'u, which resulted in the loss of all tree ferns in the Waimea area.

G. An event to have the longest lasting damage was the release of cattle, goats, and sheep. They were introduced in early 1794 by British sea captain, Vancouver, on the Kona Coast, and they escaped. They were gifts to the Hawaiian kings and protected by kapu.

1. By 1823, their presence was recognized as having a serious impact: the forests of Waimea had become open plains with reduced moisture.

2. John Parker started the ranching on the islands when he was given land in this area to catch and fence in the wild cattle.

A. This period has its beginning point the event which changed Hawai'i forever. The GREAT MAHELE of 1848, had tremendous economic, political, and social consequences, not to mention the far-reaching impact on native vegetation.

1. It provided for a land division, in which the Western idea of individual land ownership was introduced. This was diametrically opposed to the Hawaiian concept of the ahupua'a, where slices of land from mountain to sea provided all resources for life in the Hawaiian way, as a social, economic and political entity.

2. Some greedy Hawaiian chiefs and non-Hawaiians were able to legally obtain ownership of land, and the commoner, maka'ainana , lost in most cases. The loss of resources and way of life, and the introduction of diseases had a devastating effect in population reduction.

3. This was an attempt on the part of many to restore lands to the Hawaiians. Their lack of understanding the consequences of not filing for legal deeds to their land (which they understood as their own for centuries) caused them to be virtually dispossessed. By 1890, more than 25% of all private lands were owned by people of European descent.

B. Agriculture now could produce on a profitable, large scale. The ultimate loss of the Hawaiian monarchy 50 years later is traceable to the business concerns of non-Hawaiian agricultural land owners.

C. Sugar cane was the first agricultural success, with an initial 50% return on investment.

1. Kona and Kane'ohe were major growing areas. Soon, most of the lowland forests were permanently altered by agriculture and as source of firewood for sugar refineries.

2. After 150 years, few native elements survived. Erosion was even encouraged on the lower slopes of the Wai'anae to lower the plains for further farming.

D. Pineapple was next crop to develop.

1. The founder of that business, Dole, was related to the first governor, Sanford Dole. It was successful by 1901 and, in 1920, the whole island of Lana'i was basically a pineapple plantation.

2. By 1960, 80% of canned pineapple coming into the U.S. came from Hawai'i. Some grazing lands and forests were used for the crop.

E. Coffee became important by 1852 and peaked at 7 million pounds in 1932 and recently have become an important crop again.

1. Coffee was primarily grown in the Kona area of the Big Island, on the old agricultural field systems. Presently it is making a comeback as Kona Coffee in niche markets. The plant has invaded forests in some areas, like Manoa valley and ridges.

2. Interestingly, a land owner will often lose money today if he plants crops, often due to the highest labor costs in the world and the high cost of land. If land cannot be developed into commercially profitable private housing or business, golf courses are sometimes the only financially viable use!

F. As farming ventures failed and were sold to commercial interests, often large tracts of native forests had been turned into fields.

G. In recent times, the crops of macadamia and papaya are grown on the thinner, rockier soils, less desirable for cane and pine. Large forests in South Kona have been converted for this reason.

H. Other crops include the following:

1. Cut flowers are 5th in economic importance today. They have been a source of many non-native escaped plants.

2. Bananas were exported up to the late 1800's, but now are imported into the islands because prices are lower and all local crop is consumed here.

3. Pakalolo or marijuana at one time recently, had a greater monetary value than cane. It is often grown on government reserves. In 1988, its cultivation probably introduced 18 alien plants to upland Maui. It has a big impact on society where it is grown, like the Puna district of the Big Island!

I. Commercial logging of koa and ohi'a started in 1822 on the windward sides of the islands, which today are grasslands. However, more koa forests were removed for cane than logging. In 1920's, for example, plantation camps of Hilo used six to eight railroad cars of wood for their needs.

J. Watershed and Forestry policies have affected vegetation.

1. By 1846 there was concern about forest destruction and its impact on watershed capabilities. In 1876, laws were first enacted to protect the forests. In 1893, the State Department of Agriculture and Forestry was formed.

2. By 1900, forests were seen as primarily watershed protection, not as supply for timber. Unfortunately, this was not always to be so.

3. Charles S. Judd, second head of the Forestry Department, from 1915 to 1939, was a shining beacon of enlightenment about preservation of native resources. One million acres came under protection during his tenure. He had a three-point emphasis for protection: 1 - fencing (300 miles), 2 - removal of feral animals (1/4 million), and 3 - planting (4 million trees).

4. There were other views at the time, however. Dr. Lyon believed that native forests were doomed and that it was necessary to introduce new flora. He did so with 10,000 new plants during his career. However, he did plant non-timber trees, such as eucalyptus, paper bark, banyan and Albizzia to avoid the temptation of lumbering.

5. At this time, some extremely invasive introductions were made: (now that we have hindsight at this time), such as the fire tree (Myrica faya), fast-growing and nitrogen fixer, Christmas berry, strawberry quava, the princess flower (Tibouchina urvilleana) relative of Clidemia), and Hilo Holly Ardisia crenata)

K. Commercial and industrial forestry helped destroy vegetation.

1. Unfortunately, the climate changed on protection, and in the 1960's the "multiple use" concept of the forest emerged, which even allowed grazing of cattle, tame and feral, a big departure from Judd's principles.

2. Further planting of alien tree species was being criticized by U.H. professors but it was continued. Finally, the excesses were so flagrant that the U.S. government had to step in and the Animal Species Advisory Commission declared a moratorium in l974.

3. Up to the present, full-scale lumbering is not feasible due to the high cost in a moist climate and competition with lower mainland prices. But now interest is growing in such high demand wood as koa.

L. Biomass and Woodchipping is another concern.

1. Biomass and woodchipping represent another sad chapter in environmental concerns. In 1985, 38% of our electricity was generated by burning of bagasse, the leftover stems of processed sugar cane. As the supply of bagasse decreased, a large scale woodchipping project started in Puna on Campbell Estate land.

2. It continued, even after botanists decried the practice as "using the rarest flora in the U.S. . . . for burning in a power plant."

M. Ranching is an environmental concern.

1. Cattle ranching uses three times the land as crop production, therefore having a much greater impact. It involves more than 25% of the total land of the state! Zoning and taxing laws have contributed to the conversion of native vegetation to ranchland. One half of the land controlled by the state has been used for grazing during recent times. The impact of cattle is reduction of native plants, drier soil, loss of understory, destruction of shallow-rooted plants, and the introduction of alien grasses.

2. Animal-caused erosion has had the following impact: a 1982 study of a Moloka'i fishpond shows one foot of sediment deposits for the last 100 years due to feral ungulates (hoofed animals) activities!

N. Introduced animals have had a major impact on flora. They include feral goats, sheep, cattle, deer, rodents, 52 non-game birds and 78 game birds.

O. Introduced Plants.

1. Thousands of plants have been introduced to Hawai'i, and 800 of those have become naturalized, making up 47% of the flora today. Serious problems have been presented by 86 of them and 28 are capable of invading undisturbed native ecosystems.

2. These so-called alien plants and animals are a major factor in native extinctions in Hawai'i. They have even provided a natural laboratory to study how extinction happens. It is hoped others will learn from our mistakes.

P. Fires have affected native plants.

1. Fire is estimated to have occurred at a low rate in the islands, every 700-1,000 years, before human occupation. Fire has the impact of tipping the balances towards alien species at the expense of natives.

2. For example, only 50% of native trees regenerate after fires, while alien grasses increase in growth.

Q. Urbanization and housing developments affect native plants.

1. Polynesian populations were primarily restricted to coastal lowlands, leaving the interior of the islands almost uninhabited. Today's upland development has taken its toll.

2. For example, the Royal Gardens subdivision located in the Big Island was heavily promoted in the 1960's despite its position in a volcanic hazard zone on the east rift zone of Kilauea, an active volcano. By 1985 much of the area was covered by lava flow, including an area rich in mesic forests.

R. Tourism and Resort Development.

Many resorts are on the coast and this has forced out many natives in those areas. Increasingly popular are resorts away from urban centers,but their presence brings more development nearby.

S. Geothermal Development.

Geothermal brings less pollution and use of fuels but the increase of energy may stimulate unlimited development. Also, areas with native forests have been cleared for geothermal development.

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